Effective Professional Writing: The Memo

Adapted from a presentation by Xavier de Souza Briggs,

Department of Urban Studies and Planning, MIT

I F S M 2 01

Licensing Information This work “Effective Professional Writing: The Memo”, a derivative of Effective Professional Writing: The

Memo, by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. “Effective Professional Writing: The Memo” by

UMGC is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-

ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

“To do our work, we all have to read a mass of papers. Nearly all of them are far too long. This wastes time, while energy has to be spent in looking for the essential points. I ask my colleagues and their staffs to see to

it that their Reports are shorter.”

– W I N STO N C H U R C H I L L , AU G U ST 9 , 19 4 0

– S O U RC E ( A O N E PAG E R E A D ) : C H U RC H I L L’ S “ B R E V I T Y ” M E M O

Writing Memos

The context of professional writing

Why write memos?

How to write them?

How to make them better?

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The Context

The workplace or field:

◦ Time is precious.

◦ Information has substantive as well as political implications.

The decision-maker as reader:

◦ Busy and distracted (attention “spread thin”), not necessarily patient while you get to the point.

◦ Info needs are varied, unpredictable, fluid.

◦ Decision-maker sometimes offers vague instructions.

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Academic vs. professional writing

Differences (when writing concisely)

◦ The academic reader often demands nuance and relevance to established lines of thinking, while the professional reader wants the “so what’s” for their decision making emphasized (relevance to their

actions).

◦ An academic assignment assumes a small and benevolent audience, but professional documents can be “leaked,” end up in the hands of unintended readers.

Similarities

◦ Strong essays and strong memos both start with your main ideas, but essays usually build toward conclusion and synthesis. The memo’s conclusions are usually right up top.

◦ In both, persuasive argument = clear viewpoint + evidence

◦ In both, addressing counter-arguments tends to strengthen your case.

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Top mistakes in memos

Content: ◦ off point or off task (major substantive

omissions, given the request);

◦ impolitic (risks political costs if leaked);

◦ inappropriate assumptions as to background knowledge;

◦ no evidence.

Organization: ◦ important info “buried,”

◦ no summary up top, format confusing, not “skim-able.”

◦ Sentences long and dense,

◦ headings an after-thought.

Style: ◦ language too academic, too “preachy,”

or too casual;

◦ sentences long and/or dense.

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Why write memos?

Professional communication

◦ Efficient

◦ Persuasive

◦ Focused

Two types of memos:

◦ Informational (provide analytic background)

◦ Decision or “action” (analyze issues and also recommend actions)

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Consider Your Message in Context

Purpose Audience

Message

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Use a Clear Structure

Summary:

◦ Summarize the entire memo

◦ Highlight major points to consider

Background:

◦ State the context

Body:

◦ Prove it, analyze it, address counter arguments (if any)

Conclusion:

◦ Outline Next Steps or Next Questions

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Action Memos: Recommend Decisions

Summary:

◦ Summarize the entire memo, clearly, but more importantly, concisely

◦ State the broad recommendation(s)

◦ If the decision-maker reads only this section/paragraph, will he/she know what the situation is/recommendation(s) is/are (without necessarily knowing specific action steps)

Background:

◦ Provide the context

Body:

◦ Prove it/Analyze it, perhaps with pros/cons by option (if there are multiple options)

Conclusion:

◦ Outline next steps, don’t merely restate recommendation(s)

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Tip: Construct a Clear, Concise, Coherent Argument

In your opening summary, you may use more than one sentence to describe overall goals or

recommendations, however, as an exercise it typically helps to try to state your argument in one

sentence. Expand on the sentence as needed as your construct your opening summary.

Examples:

◦ In order to recreate the organization’s image and reorganize our internal structure in the next 6 months, we should focus on X, Y and Z.

◦ While the company is in compliance with State of California Privacy laws with respect to X, Y and Z, there are two areas that still need to be addressed to reach our goal of 100% compliance: A and B.

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Ethics

Computers, like any other tool, can be used for the best of purposes or manipulated to

accomplish outcomes that are dangerous or illegal. There are well-established standards

or guidelines that define the appropriate use of information technology (IT) and all the

associated systems that support this technology—computers, networks, and so on. These

guidelines form the basis of IT ethics.

Codes of Conduct: The Particular to the General

We will begin our study of ethics in the information technology setting by looking first at

those issues that more immediately affect the employee in the document that describes

use of the organization's IT resources: primarily computers and access to the internet.

Subsequently, we will investigate the policies and guidelines that define the employee's

expected behaviors related to more than just IT use—the employee code of conduct.

Finally, we will look at the standards that outline the employee's relationship to the larger

world outside the immediate organization.

User Access Agreements

Organizations expect employees to act ethically in all situations related to workplace

behavior and use of the employer's resources. To act ethically means to make sound

decisions about what is right and wrong and to act accordingly. Every time employees log

onto their computers and click to accept the user access agreement, they agree to abide

by the rules specified by the user access agreement.

Learning Resource

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Unauthorized "Surfing"

Rajiv is a new intern in the purchasing department at ABC Corporation. He

completed orientation and systems training during the first week at work and is now

eager to start working. Every morning Rajiv's manager promises to meet and give

him assignments, but his manager just can't seem to fit Rajiv's training time into his

schedule. Day after day, Rajiv comes to work, logs into his computer, clicks "I

accept" on the user access agreement, then opens his company-provided email

account and the internet browser installed on his work computer.

Rajiv has internet access at work for conducting company business by email and for

ordering supplies and services. Since Rajiv doesn't have any work to do, he

rationalizes that a little surfing on the computer wouldn't hurt anything, and it

would keep him from getting so bored every day. The following week Rajiv's

manager asks to speak with him privately. He tells Rajiv that he's been fired for

surfing the internet, which violates the company's user access agreement. Each time

Rajiv clicked "I accept" on the user access agreement, he agreed to abide by the

company's policy.

The user access agreement consists of rules outlining the activities that are acceptable

and those that are not when using the employer's computers, network, e-mail system,

website, databases, and any other forms of IT-related resources. This agreement is often

called an acceptable use policy. What type of language might such an agreement contain?

Acceptable Use Policy (adapted from UMGC, 2018):

Though the list here is brief, a well-written user access agreement will contain a longer

and more exact list of acceptable and unacceptable behaviors related to use of the

company's computers and IT resources. Effective user access agreements will also contain

examples of what is considered acceptable and unacceptable use, along with the

sanctions or penalties for misusing the company's resources. Generally, you will find

specific sections that deal with security, online etiquette, and valid use or misuse of the

organization's resources.

1. Employees should use only the computer systems, network accounts, and computer

applications and files that they are authorized to use.

2. Employees may not use another employee's network account or attempt to steal or

ascertain another employee's password.

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3. Employees are responsible for all computer resources assigned to them, including

both hardware and software, and shall not enable or assist unauthorized users to

gain access to the company's network by using a computer.

4. Employees must not share their passwords with other employees or nonemployees

and must take all reasonable steps to protect their passwords and secure their

computer systems against unauthorized use.

5. Employees may not attempt to gain access to protected/restricted portions of the

company's network or operating system, including security software and

administrative applications, without authorization.

6. Employees must not use the company's computer resources to deploy programs,

software, processes, or automated transaction-based commands that are intended

to disrupt other computer or network users or damage software or hardware

components of a system.

7. Employees are responsible to promptly report any theft, loss, or unauthorized access

of the company's network system, or illegal disclosure of any proprietary

information.

Note: If you conduct additional research on the topics here, you may find differences in

how the components or documents are labeled: agreements, policies, guidelines,

standards.

An example of a modifiable template for a complete user access agreement

(http://www.sans.org/security-resources/policies/Acceptable_Use_Policy.pdf) (more

commonly called an acceptable use policy), is provided by the SANS Institute (2014).

Rajiv's mistake was that he violated the user access agreement by surfing on the internet

when he didn't have any work to do. Clicking "I accept" on the user access agreement is

necessary to gain computer access. It is of paramount importance to know and comply

with the terms of the agreement to maintain your computer access.

You might argue that Rajiv was never warned that his actions were violating the user

access agreement, or that his supervisor was at fault for not finding the time to complete

Rajiv's training. The scenario is lacking several critical details as to why this action was

taken. The language of the user access agreement must be specific as to the actions to be

taken when a violation occurs. For example, Rajiv's employment termination might have

been a result of a sanction such as this: "Failure to observe these policies will result in

immediate disciplinary action or termination at the discretion of the offending party's

supervisor or department head."

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Rajiv had completed orientation and system training, and it is assumed that he knew the

contents of the user access agreement. And when Rajiv clicked on the "accept" button

when logging onto the internet, he was acknowledging that he understood the actions

allowed and prohibited by the user access agreement.

The Employee Code of Conduct

Expected Behaviors in an Organization

Compliance with the user access agreement is one of an employee's expected behaviors

within the organization. A user access agreement is typically part of a larger document

that outlines both the mission of the organization and the organization's approach to

employee behavior on the worksite. This document, often called the "employee code of

conduct," contains the following (New South Wales Government, Industrial Relations,

n.d.):

So the user access agreement previously discussed would be a specific example of a set of

guidelines that might be found in such a document.

policies that outline the principles and practices that enable an organization to meet

its stated mission or purpose

the steps the organization will take in dealing with operational activities and how to

respond to requirements to comply with federal and state legislation and regulations

procedures that explain how to perform tasks and duties, who is responsible for

what tasks, and how the duties are to be accomplished

guidelines listing appropriate behaviors (and sanctions for violation of these

behaviors) related to a range of topics: harassment, safety, workplace attendance,

drug and alcohol use in the workplace, religious exercise, and computer use, for

example

These policies, steps, procedures and guidelines define the "what and when" for running

the organization and also define the organization's expectations of all employees

collectively. The "what and when" in the organization means what needs to be done and

when it needs to be finished.

What's the Difference Between Policies and Guidelines?

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In an organization, employees are responsible for complying with both policies and

guidelines. Both are binding and are enforced, and both concern the organization's

operation. The major differences between the two have to do with the authoring body

and specificity. Policies tend to be larger, relatively static documents authored and

approved by an organization's governing body, most often its board of directors. Policies

are intended to be useful and applicable over time. To that end, they are normally written

with some degree of flexibility so that they can be adapted to changing circumstances.

Specific penalties and expectations are not usually included in a policy.

Guidelines are based on policy, but they tend to focus on a specific series of steps in the

functional area. Guidelines are normally approved and changed by the department or

division most affected by them. This approach puts authority in the hands of

knowledgeable staff. Because fewer individuals are involved in the drafting and approval

process, guidelines can be changed and adapted more quickly than policies. Guidelines are

typically much more explicit than policies in defining what's allowed and specifying the

penalties for particular violations.

For example, an organization's policy may state that everyone needs to have a user ID and

password to access a desktop computer. The organization's guidelines may state that the

password must contain eight characters with at least two numeric digits and two

uppercase letters.

As a general rule, an employer expects you to behave as a responsible, mature, and ethical

person. In day-to-day terms, this means being respectful of your coworkers and of the

organization's resources. Be aware that your use of the organization's resources can have

an effect on others' use of them. Broadly, it's expected that you will:

As it relates specifically to use of computer resources, the code of conduct outlines the

employer's expectation that computers, email, and the internet will be used primarily to

conduct the company's business.

maintain the security and confidentiality of your user ID and password

take care of any property assigned to you

use your knowledge of organizational information in a responsible way

use the organization's supplies and services for official purposes only

be respectful of others' property and privacy rights

Professional Associations and Codes of Conduct

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Codes of Conduct

We've covered the user access agreement and learned about an organization's policies

and guidelines as applicable to the employee code of conduct within an organization.

Another way to look at what we've covered is that we first described the expected, ethical

behavior of the individual as outlined in the user access agreement. Next, we learned that

policies and guidelines define the "what and when" for running the organization and also

define the organization's expectations of all employees collectively (as found in an

employee code of conduct).

Now, we take one step further in our discussion to describe general standards applicable

to and the behaviors that are expected of individuals who belong to professional

associations or who have obtained certifications in a particular field of expertise. How do

these codes of conduct differ from those written for a particular company, business, or

institution?

Many professional careers are not regulated by any external bodies such as federal and

state governments. Unlike doctors or accountants, for example, IT professionals do not

have specific regulations that govern their behavior, outside of established laws regarding

any type of illegal activity. Thus, professional organizations like those supporting IT

professionals develop a code of ethics, which is intended to guide and govern the

behaviors of its members. This, in one sense, is an attempt at self-regulation and ensuring

that the members demonstrate behaviors that reflect positively on the organization and

that profession as a whole.

When you look at the codes of ethics for such groups such as the Association for

Computing Machinery or the SANS Institute, you will find many of the same topics

addressed as those found within any single organization's employee code of conduct—

being respectful of others' property and privacy rights, using resources only when

authorized to do so, using knowledge of organizational information in a responsible way,

and the like. The basic elements of the code of ethics in professional associations revolve

around members conducting themselves "honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully so

as to enhance the honor, reputation, and usefulness of the profession" (NSPE, 2007).

These professional associations provide a collective voice for members who are focused

on a particular field of expertise. The associations attempt to promote professional ethical

standards among their members. But the code of ethical conduct for a professional

association is written with less specificity than an employee code of conduct. The

contents are presented as standards of behavior and do not include the details of "who,

what, and when" that are found in an employee code of conduct. In a code of ethical

conduct for a professional organization, you might find phrases such as:

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"I shall perform with honesty and integrity in all my professional relationships."

" I shall not use my knowledge and experience in the field to take advantage of

others, thereby achieving personal gain."

" I shall be willing to share my knowledge and expertise with others and always act

in such a way that reflects favorably on my profession."

Of course, these same standards of behavior are part of any employee code of conduct,

but in that setting, there are generally specific policies and guidelines to be followed in

support of these standards. If we look at one item in all three documents (the ethical code

of conduct for a professional association, the employee code of conduct, and the user

access agreement), the same topic might be addressed in the following ways:

Ethical Code of Conduct

for a Professional

Association

Employee Code of

Conduct User Access Agreement

"I shall protect the

privacy and

confidentiality of all

information entrusted to me."

"The employee will

maintain the security and

confidentiality of his/her

user ID and password."

"The user ID and

password are to be used

only by the authorized

owner of the account and only for the authorized

purpose specified by the

owner's job description."

An IT professional with a network engineering certification, faculty members in a

university with membership in the Middle States Association of College and Schools, or a

union plumber working on a construction site are a few examples of individuals who, by

virtue of their membership in a particular professional association, have subscribed to the

code of ethical conduct for that organization. Professional certifications and memberships

convey an assurance that the individual with the certification or membership has agreed

to abide by the established code of conduct.

One reason organizations hire certified professionals is to establish themselves as

organizations with competent and ethical professional employees. The rapidly changing

nature of technology makes a general standards approach very practical—it's much easier

for organizations to rely on the credentials established by the certifying professional

organizations and boards than to hire employees without knowing their level of expertise

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or their ethical and moral standing. An organization with a highly ethical and competent

staff distinguishes itself because the general standards of competency have a high level of

credibility in the workplace.

Standards and Behavior

Jenna is a network engineer and holds a Microsoft Certified Solutions Expert

(MCSE) certification. This certification attests to Jenna's ability to design and

implement computer network systems. Chad holds several Certified Information

Systems Security Professional (CISSP) credentials. These credentials signify that

Chad has the experience to handle all issues related to information systems in

business environments, particularly those that relate to security of the systems. To

obtain these professional certifications and credentials, Jenna and Chad had to

agree to act in accordance with high moral and ethical standards in all activities

related to that profession. They also had to pass examinations to prove that they

had the appropriate subject knowledge. Therefore, a professional certification

attests not only to Jenna's and Chad's subject knowledge, but also to their high

ethical standards and behavior in their professional lives.

IT Ethical Issues

Software Piracy

Even though you have purchased a legitimate copy of this software for your use, lending it

to another person, even for a short time, is a violation of the license agreement you

agreed to when you installed the software on your machine. You are not allowed to lend

(or borrow) software, and doing so is a violation of copyright law. In general, US copyright

law makes it illegal to distribute or reproduce copyrighted work without the consent of

the copyright holder. These laws have a long history in the United States, and they are

rooted in the idea that strong intellectual property rights encourage invention and

creativity.

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Legal to Lend?

Jeff is upgrading his computer and has an old version of a document

creation/editing program. He asks to borrow your installation CDs for the newer

version of the same software application to load onto his machine until he has a

chance to purchase his own copy. You give him the CDs, and he loads the program

on his machine. But when he attempts to open the program, he gets notification

that he needs to register the application. He uses the activation code that is still

attached to the back of the set of CDs you lent him. Eventually, Jeff purchases his

own copy of the software and loads it on his machine.

It can be difficult to understand that software piracy is theft because the thief isn't taking

anything physically, and because retail merchants are not present when the theft occurs. It

may seem strange that you can purchase something legally (like an iTunes song or an e-

book), and its use will become illegal if you load it more than the allowed number of times.

On the other hand, If you purchased a hardcover or paperback book, a music CD, or a

movie on a DVD, you can lend that item to as many people as you wish (as long as they do

not make copies).

Piracy, a type of software theft, occurs when software is illegally copied, registered,

activated, released, or sold. Software includes data files, music files, videos, pictures, game

files, e-books, computer applications, and operating system programs.

Software owners register or copyright their work to protect it. Software owners specify

the method and terms by which the software is distributed or shared with users. So if you

purchase a song from the iTunes store, you can load it or sync it with as many Apple

devices as you own and up to five computers that you own, but you cannot legally sync or

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