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MODULE

Seminar in Urban Problems

PADM 7224

University of Memphis Department of Public &

Nonprofit Administration

Edwards & Imrie (2015) Chapters 7 & 8

4

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CHAPTER 7: URBAN RENAISSANCE & SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT

Edwards & Imrie (2015) The Short Guide to Urban Policy

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Urban Renaissance & Sustainable Urban Development

 Late 1980s led to a rediscovery of interest in the city – both by academics and political actors

 Example – Congress for New Urbanism was established in 1993 with three key goals  To diversify neighborhoods  To design for climate change  To legalize walkable places

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Urban Renaissance & Sustainable Urban Development

 “Sustainable development” become the dominant topic of discussion  Reduce usage of cars  Increase public transportation  Improve bicycling and walking spaces  Build “green”  Reuse vacant sites (such as urban farms)  Develop local energy source (such as rooftop solar)

 Critical question – is sustainable development nothing more than traditional economic development in disguise?

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Urban Renaissance & Sustainable Urban Development: The “Good City” & Urban Environmentalism

 Responding to the negative consequences of urbanism through urban planning in early 20th century:  Ebenezer Howard (1902) – The Garden City  Le Corbusier (1929) – Ville Contemporaine  Frank Lloyd Wright (1932) – Broadacre City

 Common theme – improve cities to live symbiotically with the ecological environment

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Urban Renaissance & Sustainable Urban Development: The “Good City” & Urban Environmentalism

 Cities have typically suffered from political economy of waste –  “seeking to offload the costs of urban-industrial

processes into areas where resistance is weak and protest is unlikely to be effective [traditionally black, minority, and poor communities]” (p. 182)

 Starting in mid-1960s – focus on environmental negligence and increased environmental awareness in general; but didn’t really gain traction until late 1980s

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Urban Renaissance & Sustainable Urban Development: The “Good City” & Urban Environmentalism

 Examples of increased environmental awareness in political action writings:  Jane Jacob’s (1961) The Death and Life of Great

American Cities  WCED’s Brundtland Report (1987) Our Common

Future  Idea of eco-modernism developed during the

early 1980s – “the existing economic and social system, capitalism, can be retained because the environment can be combined in ways whereby both can be enhanced” (p. 184)

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Urban Renaissance & Sustainable Urban Development: The “Good City” & Urban Environmentalism

 Social sustainability (in addition to ecological sustainability) was championed by the Congress for New Urbanism  Full charter covers 27 principles across “The

Region”, “The Neighborhood” and “The Block”

 Summary on page 187

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Urban Renaissance & Sustainable Urban Development: Sustainable Development and Urban Policy Dimensions

 Wide range of policies have developed and emerged under the “banner of sustainability”; examples –  Pricing mechanisms to modify consumption

habits  Smart technology to monitor energy

consumption  Compact urban development (curtail urban

sprawl)  Social mixing in disadvantaged communities to

“fix” housing and employment failures (linked to gentrification)

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Urban Renaissance & Sustainable Urban Development: Sustainable Development and Urban Policy Dimensions

 Closely related to (and sometimes included in) the sustainable development policy umbrella is the concept of Smart Cities – incorporating use of data and technology in city infrastructure and services to improve quality of life  Smart Cities: A Cheat Sheet  The future of urban development  Saudi Arabia's new smart city might be a glimpse of

the future  How has COVID-19 impacted the “smart cities”

momentum?  Why you’ll be hearing a lot less about ‘smart cities’

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Urban Renaissance & Sustainable Urban Development: Sustainable Urban Policy An Evaluation

 Difficult to measure the impact of sustainable development initiative given the wide range of policies

 Unanswered questions from critics:  Is sustainable development still top-down, “growth-

first” urban renewal with dealings between local officials and private business investors instead of bottom-up, environment-first, locally led development?

 Can ecological sustainability coincide with economic growth?

 Moving forward – maintain goals of WCED’s Brundtland Report, but implement with a range of stakeholders

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Urban Renaissance & Sustainable Urban Development: Alternative Visions for Sustainable Cities

 2008 global recession has increased focus on economic growth at expense of social and environmental concerns

 Alternative 1: organic regeneration  Locally-led development that makes cities’

places more than commodities  Dismantle single-developer projects

 Alternative 2: distributed economies  Shorten the supply and production chain  Grow and consume local (e.g., urban farming)

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Urban Renaissance & Sustainable Urban Development: Web Links

 Stockholm Environment Institute  https://www.sei.org/

 United Nations Sustainable Development  https://sdgs.un.org/

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CHAPTER 8: URBAN RECOVERY & THE FUTURE FOR CITIES

Edwards & Imrie (2015) The Short Guide to Urban Policy

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Urban Recovery & the Future for Cities

 How has 2008 recession-related fiscal cutbacks in spending on public programs disproportionately impacts poor and disadvantaged city dwellers?

 How has private investment increased in public land acquisition?

 Post-welfare urban policy  “Urban recovery after 2008 was defined in

self-help terms, including the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which provided estimated $190 billion to be invested in cities” (p. 208)

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Urban Recovery & the Future for Cities: Global Recession and the State of Cities

 2008 Great Recession had a dramatic impact on economic stability of cities worldwide  Further increased the focus of city leaders on

economic development and growth  Led to increase privatization of public services

and/or fee-based systems – cities needed upfront cash at cost of long-term benefits

 Led to further municipal cuts in services – example: 40% of Detroit’s street lighting was turned off due to budget shortfalls

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Urban Recovery & the Future for Cities: Urban Policy & Politics of Austerity

 “Growth first” urban policy is seen by city leaders as the only alternative

 Typically resulting in loosening of planning and building regulations to encourage private development

 IN THEORY these approaches create “trickle down” economics that will improve local economic fortunes (but not always in reality)

Note: Reminder that several parts of this book discuss United Kingdom (UK) urban policy, great examples but be aware. Discussion of the Coalition Government and NPFF (p.214-217) in this section is UK policy and politics.

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Urban Recovery & the Future for Cities: Global Recession and the State of Cities

 Strong Cities, Strong Communities (SC) initiative of President Obama (2011)  “Seeks to strengthen neighborhoods, towns,

cities, and regions around the country by enhancing the capacity of local governments to develop and execute their economic vision and strategies, providing necessary technical assistance and access to federal agency expertise, and creating new public and private sector partnerships.”

 Urban Institute’s research report on SC – includes Memphis, TN

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Urban Recovery & the Future for Cities: The Effects of Austerity (Urban) Policy

 Urban austerity policy – frugality in spending to control debt (often synonymous with fiscal cuts)

 City officials feel they have no choice but to turn to private corporations for sustained financial support

 Thus, private corporations are playing a larger role in city governance (place- making, building urban environment)

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Urban Recovery & the Future for Cities: The Effects of Austerity (Urban) Policy

 Other impacts of urban austerity policy:  New private development tends to cater to

high-income persons, prices many city residents out of their communities (i.e., gentrification)

 Contributing to the widening of income inequality in cities

 Erosion of collective public space (due to sale of public land/assets); turns to privately-governed space

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Urban Recovery & the Future for Cities: Beyond Austerity & the Right to the City

 Current state – and future – of urban policy appears to be leading to the continued “disenfranchisement of different groups in the city” (p. 227)

 Not a new trend – think neighborhood destruction during mid-1900s highway construction; and urban entrepreneurial approaches of 1980s and 1990s

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Urban Recovery & the Future for Cities: Beyond Austerity & the Right to the City

 Views of the possible “good city” (p. 228-230):  “Autonomous self-organizing civil society…

within a framework of democratic institutions” (Friedmann, 2000)

 Predicated on social justice and focused on enhancing citizen well-being (Gleeson, 2014)

 Focuses on changing structural causes of urban inequality and poverty through collective ownership (Imbrosico, 2013)

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Urban Recovery & the Future for Cities: Beyond Austerity & the Right to the City

 Four principles of “practical urban utopianism” (Amin, 2006)  Repair – inspect/fix infrastructure to ensure all

have good quality of life  Relatedness – develop public culture through

space sharing  Rights – ensure all citizens have a voice towards

shaping the city  Re-enchantment – vibrant public spaces that

embrace differences  “Future of the city will need to confront its

distinctive social and political context” (Robinson, 2006)

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Web Links

 People or Place? Urban Policy in the Age of Austerity (UK)  https://barrowcadbury.org.uk/wp-

content/uploads/2012/09/People-or-Place- Urban-Policy-in-the-Age-of-Austerity-FINAL- FOR-WEB1.pdf

 Antipode Online (UK)  https://antipodeonline.org/

 Urbanology  https://urbanology.com/

PADM 7224 1

MODULE

Seminar in Urban Problems

PADM 7224

University of Memphis Department of Public &

Nonprofit Administration

Euchner & McGovern (2003) Chapter 4 – Housing and the

Structure of Place

4

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Housing and the Structure of Place

 Housing refers to homeless shelters and mansions and everything in between

 Housing is connected to one’s personal conceptualization of “home”

 “Lumpy” – big and clumsy commodity in the free market; takes substantial investment, not portable, time consuming; buying a house is a long-term bet

 Building affordable housing isn’t typically profitable in the free market

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Housing and the Structure of Place

 “Government plays a vital role in making existing land usable” – infrastructure (streets, utilities, etc.) is key to development

 Cities typically have large areas of usable land, but government lacks the financial resources to prepare for development

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Housing and the Structure of Place

 Housing has ripple effects on the individual:  Typically their biggest expense  Location impacts access to opportunity (e.g.,

jobs)  Location tied to public education – “where

you live often determines how much you learn” (p. 140)

 Location tied to taxes

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Housing, Opportunity, and the City

 “American Dream” is often synonymous with one owning their own home

 Poor and minorities are less likely to live in well- maintained housing – society needs to offer the opportunity to work up to better housing

 Housing impacts the labor force  Home-life impacts work life  Children (future labor force) are impacted by the

home environment  Traditional gender roles have kept women out of the

labor force and as a homemaker

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Housing, Opportunity, and the City

 How is housing an “urban” issue?  Cities constantly contend with where to

develop – “tale of two cities” encompasses housing

 Loss of developer interest – easier to build in suburbs than cities

 Building housing in cities requires meticulous planning in relation to surroundings

 Sub-standard housing is prominent in poor and minority communities in cities

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The Character of American Housing Policy

 Private ownership is the foundation of housing policy – collective ownership of housing in the U.S. is atypical

 Major federal government influence – tax breaks on mortgage interest – primarily benefits middle/upper class

 Primary federal government housing agency – Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

 Public policy related to housing can be conflictual

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Housing, the Economy, and the City

 Housing is related to roughly between 15-20% of the overall U.S. economy  Congressional Research Service’s (2019)

Introduction to U.S. Economy: Housing Market

 State of housing market typically represents the state of the rest of the economy

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Housing, the Economy, and the City

 How to measure housing affordability?  Percent of income (usually less than 30%)  Shelter poverty standard – if housing expenses

impact the ability to afford other necessities  Owning vs. renting

 Government-funded housing assistance programs (e.g., “Section 8”) assist with affordability but have typically long waiting- lists and have minor impacts on shelter poverty rates

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Housing, the Economy, and the City

 How to measure housing affordability?  Percent of income (usually less than 30%)  Shelter poverty standard – if housing expenses

impact the ability to afford other necessities  Owning vs. renting

 Government-funded housing assistance programs (e.g., “Section 8”) assist with affordability but have typically long waiting- lists and have minor impacts on shelter poverty rates

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Housing, the Economy, and the City

 Gentrification typically comes at the expense of poor and minorities – displaces communities

 National Community Reinvestment Coalition’s (2019) Shifting Neighborhoods: Gentrification and cultural displacement in American cities  Concentrated in cities; near central business

districts  Black and Hispanic residents impacted

disproportionately

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Housing, the Economy, and the City

 Urban housing policy must effectively address the housing rental market  Are rentals safe, secure, and affordable?  Are there wrongful eviction protections?  How to address professional landlords (i.e.,

corporations) vs. mom-and-pop landlords?

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Housing Policy

 “Rules of the game”:  Federal government regulates banks and interest

rates – housing loans  Federal, state, and local government set laws to

prevent discrimination in sale or rent of housing  State and local regulate development (how build)

and zoning (where build)  Two policy approaches:  Create more housing (supply) (e.g., Community

Development Corporations, public housing)  Impact purchasing power (demand) (e.g., Section

8, rent control laws, mortgage interest deduction)

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Regulating the Housing Environment: Financial Institutions

 Federal government involvement in housing spurred by Great Depression

 Federal Housing Act of 1934  Among multiple other things, backed banks

on long-term low-down payment mortgages – gave opportunity for working- class families to own a home

 Introduced mortgage deduction on federal income tax

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Regulating the Housing Environment: Fairness

 Fairness in housing was late to the game – racial discrimination was rampant, Federal Housing Authority actively encouraged such (see excerpts from 1934 manual)

 Supreme Court decision in Shelley v. Kramer (1948) – “restrictive covenants” (legal clauses prevented property sales to minorities) were deemed unconstitutional

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Regulating the Housing Environment: Fairness

 Fair Housing Act (Title VIII of Civil Rights Act of 1968)  “prohibits discrimination in the sale, rental, and

financing of dwellings, and in other housing-related transactions, because of race, color, religion, sex, familial status, national origin, and disability.”

 Lacked enforcement “teeth”  Someone trying to find a place to live will unlikely

seek legal action against those supporting discriminatory practices as they don’t have the resources to do so

 Urban Institute – “no question that access to housing remains unequal” in today’s society

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Regulating the Housing Environment: Local Development

 Zoning – codes and ordinances enacted by local government to limit what kinds of building can be built where in their jurisdiction (i.e., community)  Function, size of structure, and property

alignments  Historically used to isolate poor and minority

populations  State building codes determine the rules

by which builders can build structures – difficultly is to balance between ensuring safety and limiting overburdensome codes

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The Demand Side: Improving People’s Purchasing Power

 Mortgage interest tax benefit  Tax break for people to deduct mortgage

insurance from federal income tax bill  Intended to encourage home buying  Disproportionately benefits middle-class and

affluent populations; owners over renters  Brookings Institute – the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act

of 2017 is expected to reduce the claiming of mortgage interest deduction to about 8% of all returns (down from 20%

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The Demand Side: Improving People’s Purchasing Power

 Local property tax benefit  Tax break for people to deduct local

property tax from federal income tax bill  Local property tax varies substantially from

place to place, state to state

 Would eliminating these tax benefits destroy the housing market? Limit people’s ability to purchase homes?

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The Demand Side: Improving People’s Purchasing Power

 Section 8 Vouchers (Housing Choice Vouchers) – started during Nixon (1974) as alternative to public housing  Criticisms:  Not enough vouchers, long waiting lists  Not enough Section 8 housing (i.e., rental units

that accept vouchers)  Perpetuates social and racial isolation  Program that doesn’t encourage positive

behavior on either the side of the tenant or the landlord