30 Sep After reading Chapters 1 through 10, how would you compare growt
After reading Chapters 1 through 10, how would you compare growth between children and adolescents? Provide examples from the book. Be elaborative with your answer.
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SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
CHAPTER 10
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Learning Objectives
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- Explain: These are the questions we will consider as we begin our journey into the field of life span development.
THE DEVELOPING SELF
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Who Am I?
During middle childhood, children begin to view themselves:
- Less in terms of external physical attributes
- More in terms of psychological traits
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Psychosocial Development in Middle Childhood
Success in the industry-versus-inferiority stage brings with it feelings of mastery and proficiency and a growing sense of competence
- Industry = feelings of mastery and proficiency and a growing sense of competence
- Inferiority = feelings of failure and inadequacy
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- Lasting from roughly age 6 to age 12, the industry-versus-inferiority stage is characterized by a focus on efforts to meet the challenges presented by parents, peers, school, and the other complexities of the modern world.
Erik Erikson's middle childhood
- Encompasses the INDUSTRY-VERSUSINFERIORITY STAGE
- Period from ages 6 to 12 years of age
- Characterized by a focus on efforts to attain competence in meeting the challenges related to:
- Parents
- Peers
- School
- Other complexities of the modern world
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Understanding One's Self: A New Response to “Who Am I?”
How do school-agers change?
- Children realize they are good at some things and not so good at others
- Self-concept and self-esteem continue to develop
- Children's self-concepts become divided into personal and academic spheres
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Looking Inward: The Development of Self
As children get older, their views of self become more differentiated, comprising several personal and academic spheres.
What cognitive changes make this possible?
(Source: Based on Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976.)
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Social Comparison
Children use social comparison to themselves to abilities, expertise, and opinions of others
Festinger (1959)
- When objective measures are absent children rely on social reality
- How others act, think, feel, and view the world
- Festinger is known for the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance which suggests a tendency for individuals to seek consistency among their cognitions, and if conflict exists between attitude and behavior, attitude will likely change first.
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Sometimes…
Children Make Downward Social Comparisons
- With others who are:
- Less competent
- Less successful
- To raise or protect their self-esteem
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Self-Esteem: Developing a Positive-or Negative-View of the Self
Develops in important ways during middle childhood
- Children increasingly compare themselves to others
- Children are developing their own standards
- For most children self-esteem improves in middle childhood
- As children progress into the middle childhood years, however, their self-esteem is higher for some areas and lower in others. For example, a boy's overall self-esteem may be composed of positive self-esteem in some areas (such as the positive feelings he gets from his artistic ability) and more negative self-esteem in others (such as the unhappiness he feels over his athletic skills).
- On the other hand, students with high self-esteem travel a more positive path, falling into a cycle of success. Having higher expectations leads to increased effort and lower anxiety, increasing the probability of success. In turn, this helps affirm their higher self-esteem that began the cycle.
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Change and Stability in Self-Esteem
Generally, overall self-esteem is high during middle childhood, but it begins to decline around the age of 12
- School transition
- Chronically low self-esteem for some
A Cycle of Low Self-Esteem
- Because children with low self-esteem may expect to do poorly on a test, they may experience high anxiety and not work as hard as those with higher self-esteem.
- As a result, they actually do with high self-esteem have more positive expectations, which leads to lower anxiety and higher motivation.
- As a consequence, they perform better, reinforcing their positive self-image.
- How would a teacher help
students with low self-esteem break out of
their negative cycle?
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Breaking the Cycle of Failure
- Promoting development of self-esteem
- Using authoritative child-rearing style
Why do you think this style is recommended?
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- Authoritative parents are warm and emotionally supportive, while still setting clear limits for their children's behavior.
- In contrast, other parenting styles have less positive effects on self-esteem.
- Parents who are highly punitive and controlling send a message to their children that they are untrustworthy and unable to make good decisions—a message that can undermine children's sense of adequacy.
- Highly indulgent parents, who indiscriminately praise and reinforce their children regardless of their actual performance, can create a false sense of self-esteem in their children, which ultimately may be just as damaging to children.
Race and Self-Esteem
Early research found that African Americans had lower self-esteem than whites
- More recent research shows these early assumptions to be overstated
- African Americans
- Hispanic Americans
- Asian Americans
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- Set of pioneering studies a generation ago found that African American children shown black and white dolls preferred the white dolls over the black ones (Clark & Clark, 1947).
- Picture is more complex regarding relative levels of self-esteem between members of different racial and ethnic groups. For example, although white children initially show higher self-esteem than black children, black children begin to show slightly higher self-esteem than white children around the age of 11. This shift occurs as African-American children become more identified with their racial group, develop more complex views of racial identity, and increasingly view the positive aspects of their group membership.
- Hispanic children, also show an increase in self-esteem toward the end of middle childhood, although even in adolescence their self-esteem still trails that of whites.
- In contrast, Asian-American children show the opposite pattern: their self-esteem in elementary school is higher than whites and blacks, but by the end childhood, their self-esteem is lower than that of whites.
Why Does This Occur?
Social Identity Theory
- Members of a minority group accept negative views held by majority group only if they perceive little realistic possibility of changing power and status differences between groups
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- If minority group members feel that prejudice and discrimination can be reduced, and they blame society for the prejudice and not themselves, self-esteem should not differ between majority and minority groups.
- As group pride and ethnic awareness on the part of minority group members has grown, differences in self-esteem between members of different ethnic groups have narrowed.
Are Children of Immigrant Families Well Adjusted?
- Tend to have equal or better grades than children with US born parents
- Often more highly motivated to succeed and place greater value on education than do children in nonimmigrant families
- Show similar levels of self-esteem to nonimmigrant children
- Report feeling less popular and less in control of their lives
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- More than 13 million children in the U.S. are either foreign born or the children of immigrants—some one-fifth of the total population of children.
- The story is less clear, however, when immigrant children reach adolescence and adulthood.
Moral Development: Kohlberg
- Proposes series of fixed stages in development of moral reasoning
- Uses moral dilemmas to assess moral reasoning
- Provides good account of moral judgment but not adequate at predicting moral behavior
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Kohlberg Stages
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Kohlberg Criticisms
- Based solely on observations of members of Western cultures
- Theory initially based largely on data from males
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- Cross-cultural research finds that members of more industrialized, technologically advanced cultures move through the stages more rapidly than members of nonindustrialized countries.
- Nature of morality may differ in diverse cultures.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN GIRLS
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Carol Gilligan
- Way boys and girls raised leads to differences in moral reasoning
- Suggests Kohlberg's theory inadequate and places girls’ moral reasoning at lower level than boys’
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- Boys view morality primarily in terms of justice and fairness.
- Girls see morality in terms of responsibility and compassion toward individuals and a willingness to sacrifice for relationships.
Gilligan's Stages of Morality in Girls
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- “Orientation toward individual survival” – where females concentrate on what is practical and best for them.
- “Goodness as self-sacrifice” – where females think they must sacrifice their own wishes to what others want.
- “Morality of nonviolence” – women come to see hurting anyone as immoral, including themselves.
Review and Apply
- industry
- social comparison; psychological
- comparison; success; low
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Review and Apply
- moral; rewards; punishments; moral
- girls; moral
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Review and Apply
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RELATIONSHIPS: BUILDING FRIENDSHIP IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
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Friends in Middle Childhood
- Provide emotional support and help kids to handle stress
- Teach children how to manage and control their emotions
- Teach about communication with others
- Foster intellectual growth
- Allow children to practice relationship skills
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Damon's Stages of Friendship
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Damon's Stages of Friendship
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Damon's Stages of Friendship
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Likes me…likes me not!
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- Children develop clear ideas about which behaviors they seek in their friends—and which they dislike. As can be seen in Table 10-3, fifth- and sixth-graders most enjoy others who invite them to participate in activities and who are helpful, both physically and psychologically. In contrast, displays of physical or verbal aggression, among other behaviors, are disliked.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CHILDREN’S FRIENDSHIP
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King or Queen of the Hill…Status Hierarchies
- Children's friendships show clear hierarchies in terms of status
- Status is the evaluation of a role or person by other relevant members of a group
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High Status Children
- Form friendships with high status children
- More likely to form exclusive and desirable cliques
- Tend to play with a greater number of children
- Have greater access to resources such as games, toys, books, and information
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Popular Children
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- Although generally popular children are friendly, open, and cooperative, one subset of popular boys displays an array of negative behaviors, including being aggressive, disruptive, and causing trouble. Despite these behaviors, they may be viewed as cool and tough by their peers, and they are often remarkably popular. This popularity may occur in part because they are seen as boldly breaking rules that others feel constrained to follow.
Social Problem-Solving and Information Processing
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Figure 10-3 Problem-Solving Steps
Children’s problem solving proceeds
through several steps involving different
information processing strategies.
According to developmental psychologist Kenneth Dodge, successful social problem-solving proceeds through a series of steps that correspond to children's information-processing strategies. Dodge argues that the manner in which children solve social problems is a consequence of the decisions that they make at each point in the sequence.
- Ask: Can you think of examples to apply to each of these stages?
Low Status Children
- Form friendships with other lower status children
- Tend to play with a lower number of children than higher status children
- Are more likely to play with younger or less popular children
- Tend to follow the lead of higher status children
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Unpopular Children
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Unpopular Children
Lack of popularity may take two forms
Neglected children
- Receive relatively little attention from their peers in the form of either positive or negative interaction
Rejected children
- Are actively disliked and their peers may react to them in an obviously negative manner
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Teaching Social Competence
Several programs teach children set of social skills that underlie general social competence
- Before we review these, take a few minutes to visit with a classmate about what kind of program would best enhance social competence.
- Report to the class.
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- See: Susan H. Spence. (2003) Social Skills Training with Children and Young People: Theory, Evidence and Practice. Child and Adolescent Mental Health: 2, 84–96,
- Making Friends: Parents Can Teach Children How to Make Friends/Boystown Tip Sheet. Available at:
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