This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). It was

prepared by EnCompass LLC with contributions from Amy Mulcahy-Dunn, Anna Martin, Daniel Mont, Emma Venetis,

Sarah Rotich, and Thomaz Alvares de Azevedo for the Data and Evidence for Education Programs (DEEP) activity,

Contract No. GS-10F-0245M. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or

the United States Government.

ARE WE FULFILLING OUR PROMISES?

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN SUB-

SAHARAN AFRICA DATA AND EVIDENCE FOR EDUCATION PROGRAMS

(DEEP) PROJECT

September 2020

PHOTO | WORLD BANK/DEEPTI SAMANT RAJA

i | INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA USAID.GOV

CONTENTS LIST OF EXHIBITS …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. I

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………………………………………………………. II

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ………………………………………………………………………………… III

INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1

SECTION 1: INCLUSIVE VERSUS SEGREGATED VERSUS INTEGRATED EDUCATION 3

SECTION 2: GOVERNMENT PRIORITY …………………………………………………………………………….. 5 2.1: Inclusive Education Policies ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5

2.2: Financing Inclusive Education ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10

SECTION 3: SCHOOL ACCESS ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 12 3.1: Participation in School ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13

3.2: Barriers to Enrollment ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 16

3.3: School Completion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17

3.4: Barriers to Retention ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 18

SECTION 4: SCHOOL EXPERIENCE ……………………………………………………………………………….. 19 4.1: Accessibility of Facilities ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19

4.2: Bullying and Violence ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21

4.3: Instructional Accommodation and Teacher Training ………………………………………………………………… 21

SECTION 5: USAID INITIATIVES TO SUPPORT DISABILITY PROGRAMMING IN SUB-

SAHARAN AFRICA ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 23

CONCLUSIONS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27

REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 28

LIST OF EXHIBITS Exhibit 1: Country approaches to education for learners with disabilities……………………………………….. 3

Exhibit 2: Educational provisions seen around the world for learners with disabilities …………………… 4

Exhibit 3: Inclusive education policies in Sub-Saharan Africa …………………………………………………………….. 9

Exhibit 4: Proportion of 15- to 29-year-olds who have ever attended school, by disability status

and sex ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 14

Exhibit 5: Out-of-school rate for primary and lower secondary school-age children, by disability

status (%) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 15

Exhibit 6: School completion rate for primary school-age children, by disability status and sex …… 18

Exhibit 7: USAID programs with inclusive education initiatives ………………………………………………………. 24

Exhibit 8: USAID support of inclusive education initiatives in Sub-Saharan Africa …………………………. 26

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS USAID would like to acknowledge and thank the contributions of all who made this report possible:

• Mitch Loeb for his review and contributions to this report.

• Joshua Josa and Kathy Guernsey (USAID), Charlotte Vuyiswa McClain-Nhlao, Ruchi Khulbir,

Singh, and Deepti Samant Raja (World Bank), Thomas Sabella (Inclusive Education and ECCE),

Aliou Tall (USAID/Liberia), Iris L. Young and Mohamed Traore (USAID/Mali), Ezra Simon

(USAID/Senegal), Melissa Chipili (USAID/Uganda), Andrea Barbosa (USAID/Zambia), for their

review of this report

• Kakali Banik for making this study possible and for all her guidance and support throughout this

process

iii | INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA USAID.GOV

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS CRPD Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

DEEP Data and Evidence for Education Programs

DHS Demographic and Health Surveys

DRC Democratic Republic of Congo

EMIS Education Management Information System

IDA International Disability Alliance

LSMS Living Standards Measurement Study

MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey

SDG Sustainable Development Goal

UNCRC United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

USAID United States Agency for International Development

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INTRODUCTION Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 calls for ensuring inclusive and equitable quality

education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities—a key element in achieving

the Agenda for Sustainable Development 2030 and the United States Agency for

International Development (USAID) Journey to Self-Reliance. SDG 4.1 goes on to call

for all girls and boys to complete free, equitable, and quality primary and secondary

education that leads to relevant and effective learning outcomes by 2030. Two targets

explicitly mention disability:

• Target 4.5 aims to ensure access to all levels of education and vocational training

• Target 4.a calls for building and upgrading all education facilities that are sensitive

to persons with disabilities and providing inclusive learning environments for all

children (United Nations 2018)

Education, a fundamental human right, is essential to individual development and

effective participation in society. Therefore, education must be accessible to every

single child. Numerous conventions and frameworks declare that everyone has a right

to education and that education is an integral part of universal human rights: the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the UNESCO Convention Against

Discrimination in Education (1960), the United Nations Convention on the Rights of

the Child (UNCRC 1989), the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on

Special Needs Education (1994), the Convention on the Rights of Persons with

Disabilities (CRPD 2006), and the Incheon Declaration adopted at the World

Education Forum (2015) (United Nations 2018). The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and

Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in Africa (The African Union Commission

2018), in particular Article 16, gives children with disabilities and their families an important regional

legal tool to ensure their right to inclusive education against states which fail to fulfill the obligation of

this right (Dubin 2019). The SDGs use the momentum generated by these and many other documents

to ensure measures are taken to achieve the full inclusion of all children, including children with

disabilities, in schools across the world.

In this report, disability is defined as a functional difficulty (i.e., difficulty doing basic activities linked to an

impairment or health condition) that, due to environmental barriers, may exclude someone from full

participation in society.

According to the United Nations’ Flagship Report on Disability and Development, Realization of the

Sustainable Development Goals by, for and with Persons with Disabilities, there is an urgent need to improve

access to education for persons with disabilities so they can acquire the skills and knowledge required

for full inclusion in society and active participation in the labor market. Otherwise, existing educational

disadvantages are likely to lead to even higher exposure to social exclusion and poverty. Among adults

with disabilities, each additional year of schooling they completed reduces the probability that they will

be in the poorest two quintiles by 2–5 percent (UNESCO 2015). It is evident that increasing access to

high-quality, equitable education based on principles of universal design for learning is a key element in

ending this cycle (United Nations 2018).

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Although 42 percent of countries in sub-Saharan Africa are considered to be pursuing inclusive

education policies,1,2 children with disabilities still face significant barriers to access and complete

education—barriers that differ for each child depending on their disability (UNESCO, 2020). For

example, building ramps can help many learners physically enter the school but does nothing to improve

access for learners who are blind or deaf, or have intellectual disabilities.

Evidence shows that children with disabilities are less likely to attend school. Even when they are able to

enroll in school, other challenges in the design of the education system create barriers for learners with

disabilities and make it less likely for them, on average, to complete levels of education comparable to

their peers without disabilities (UNESCO 2018a). Barriers to the successful completion of school

include lack of government prioritization of inclusive education in strategies and policies; lack of

knowledge/resources for parents/caregivers to support their children in schooling; the prejudices,

discrimination, and attitudes that many still hold against children and adults with disabilities; a lack of

qualified teachers, principals, and pedagogic supervisors, to accommodate the needs of learners with

disabilities;3 poor accessibility of school infrastructure; the low supply of accessible teaching and learning

materials; and the low number of teachers with disabilities who better understand and show empathy

towards learners with disabilities, provide mentorship to learners with and without disabilities, provide

guidance and expertise on the inclusion process, lead to a positive change in attitude, advise colleagues

on being more aware of learners’ difficulties, and create a more inclusive environment for teachers and

students with disabilities (IDA 2020; UNESCO 2014; UNESCO 2020; GPE 2018).

There is a global systemic dearth of data on inclusive education programs that are needed to ensure the

achievement of the SDGs by 2030 (Mont 2007). Through the collection of data disaggregated by

disability, resources can be allocated equitably, budgets can be managed more efficiently, inclusive

education programs and policies can be implemented and monitored more closely, and efforts to

enhance education services can be strengthened (GPE Stocktake 2018). It is especially critical to

disaggregate data not only by disability, in general, but by types of disabilities. We can then begin to

understand the specific barriers faced by children who are deaf or with reduced hearing, by those who

are blind or with low vision, or those faced by children with intellectual or physical disabilities. It will

also be possible to examine barriers faced by children with any combination of difficulties, for example,

those who are deaf-blind.

The educational experience for all learners, and specifically learners with disabilities, must be both

accessible and inclusive so they can stay enrolled until completion. It must also provide qualified teachers

and adapted learning materials to meet each learner’s unique needs. Schools must ensure that learners

are safe from harm (e.g., bullying, violence, undeserved discipline) so each learner (regardless of their

disability status) and their caregivers feel that being in school does not come at a cost beyond the

financial one.

In the sections that follow, we discuss the state of inclusive education across Sub-Saharan Africa. While

many of the broader observations apply to much of the world, we have provided examples that are

1 The focus of inclusive education differs by country. In high-income countries, inclusive education often refers to

efforts to educate children with disabilities, whereas in low-income countries, where more children are excluded

from school, the term is used more broadly to refer to the education of girls and the poorest children, in addition

to children with disabilities (EDT and UNICEF 2016). 2Countries that have Inclusive Education Policies include: Angola, Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, Liberia, Mauritius,

Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Seychelles, South Sudan, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. 3 The CRPD defines disability as long-term physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory impairments that, in interaction

with various barriers, may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.

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specific to sub-Saharan Africa throughout this report. ln Section 1, we begin with a description of

inclusive, integrated, and segregated schooling for children with disabilities. In Section 2, Government

Priority, we review declarations, laws, policies, and funding allocations through which Sub-Saharan

African countries prioritize or recognize inclusive education. In Section 3, School Access, we review

data on inclusive education, including the school attendance and school completion of learners with

disabilities, as well as the barriers to enrollment and retention. In Section 4, School Experience, we

review the practical experience of learners with disabilities in school, including how accessibility of

facilities, bullying and violence, and instructional accommodations affects this experience. The report

concludes in Section 5 with a review of USAID’s initiatives to support inclusive education in Sub-Saharan

Africa

SECTION 1: INCLUSIVE VERSUS

SEGREGATED VERSUS INTEGRATED

EDUCATION There are different approaches to the provision of education for children with disabilities. These

different approaches reflect different constructs of disability, namely the social versus the medical model

of disability4 which can affect whether there are efforts at systemic change or only various levels of

individual accommodation. Given these fundamental differences, we begin our discussion by describing

these different approaches. According to the World Bank’s Every Learner Matters report (2019), most

countries make explicit reference to persons with disabilities’ right to education in their constitutions,

laws, and policies. However, definitions are rarely included, they vary widely, and their implementation

(if it exists) often aligns more with segregated learning and special schooling than true inclusion. Even

when countries claim they are following inclusion, they may only be placing children with disabilities in

regular classrooms, and not creating a learning environment that addresses their needs. Of the 51

countries included in the GPE Stocktake of Education Sector Plans (ESPs), 41 countries have segregated

schools, 3 are piloting integrated schools and 23 have implemented them at a large scale, 17 have both

special and integrated learning, and only 17 are piloting inclusive education (Exhibit 1) (2018).

Exhibit 1: Country approaches to education for learners with disabilities

Learners with disabilities are frequently placed in special schools or classrooms because of the belief that

they will benefit more from learning in such settings. Separating learners in their own classrooms and

4 Please see USAID’s Mapping of Tools for Disaggregation by Disability Status for a description of the social and

medical models of disability.

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schools isolates learners with disabilities and bolsters existing negative stereotypes. Although it will take

time to reach full inclusion, taking steps toward inclusive schools and away from segregated and

integrated learning is critical to meeting SDG 4.

Inclusive education means having one inclusive system of education that is responsive to the needs of all

learners, at all levels (early childhood, primary, secondary, and post-secondary) and provides supports to

meet the needs of learners with disabilities. It advocates access to schools through the principles of

Universal Design for Learning and having resources for specific needs available to teachers and learners.

It supports the participation of all learners in a safe and friendly environment, using the mother tongue

or sign language for primary learning and technology to further support communication. It also

promotes achievement that comes with qualified teachers trained in Universal Design for Learning,

adaptable curriculum, and resources available to meet the needs of each child.

This differs from segregated education, where learners with disabilities are in special schools. It is also

not the same as integrated schooling, which has learners with disabilities on the same campus or

compound as learners without disabilities, but without the necessary supports or considerations for

their needs. Integration is often confused with inclusion, but without support or inclusive pedagogy for

learners with disabilities, this does not equate to inclusion. Other approaches to education for learners

with disabilities are via pilot programs, in-hospital schools or classrooms, and in-home teaching (World

Bank 2019).

Exhibit 2: Educational provisions seen around the world for learners with disabilities

According to a qualitative study by Okyere and colleagues (2019), learners with intellectual and

developmental disabilities in inclusive schools in Accra, Ghana, received support from many of their

peers, but also faced challenges such as corporal punishment, low family and teacher support for their

learning, and victimization from other peers. Learners expressed concern over the lack of teachers’

support, saying, “If teacher helps me, I can be able to understand and write” and “I want someone to

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always help me to learn.” Learners with disabilities often had to complete the assignments in the same

amount of time as their peers and without any modifications to the lessons (instructions and

assignments), even when those changes would have proved helpful. Often, when they were unable to

complete an assignment in the time allotted, learners with disabilities were punished by not being

allowed to go out and enjoy recess or, even more seriously, a lunch break.

Education for learners with disabilities in inclusive settings provides an opportunity for learners with and

without disabilities to work together on assignments and even interact outside the classroom during

their commutes home, which improves not only their academic skills but also their social interactional

skills (Okyere et al. 2019). Inclusive education benefits all learners because they are able to access the

material through alternative methods and Universal Design for Learning that will only bolster their

understanding of the material. According to UNICEF (2017), inclusive education promotes

understanding, reduces prejudice, and strengthens social integration among all learners, with ripple

effects into the community.

SECTION 2: GOVERNMENT PRIORITY Government support and prioritization of inclusive education influence the availability and allocation of

resources and school-level policies that reinforce inclusive education (UNICEF 2009). Across Sub-

Saharan Africa, governments recognize inclusive education through various declarations, disability and

education acts and laws, national policies, constitutional provisions, and funding allocations.

2.1: INCLUSIVE EDUCATION POLICIES

A number of international treaties spearheaded by the United Nations have been signed, ratified, or

adopted by the majority of Sub-Saharan African countries. The UNCRC, a human rights treaty signed in

1989, sets out the rights of children around the world and specifically seeks to ensure these rights apply

to all children, irrespective of disability status. All United Nations Member States except the United

States have ratified the UNCRC (United Nations Treaty Collection 2020a).5

The education of children with disabilities is not a particularly new initiative in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Formal education of children with disabilities has occurred in special schools since the colonial era

(Mpofu, Oakland, and Chimedza 2007). Additionally, some countries in Africa were among the first to

sign and ratify the UNCRC (EDT and UNICEF 2016). A shift of policy and practice toward inclusive

education is happening with commitment and enthusiasm (Charema 2010).

The CRPD is an international treaty adopted in 2006 that identifies the rights of persons with disabilities

and obliges states to promote, protect, and ensure those rights. It does not set out new requirements,

but clarifies existing rights of persons with disabilities already existing in international treaties. Most Sub-

Saharan African countries in this review have signed and ratified the CRPD which guarantees the right to

inclusive education. More specifically, Article 24 recognizes the right of persons with disabilities to

inclusive education without discrimination and on an equal basis with others, and requires parties to

ensure persons with disabilities can access inclusive education. General Comment No. 4 on Article 24

further defines and conceptualizes inclusive education and provides a framework and guidance for states.

It makes it clear that persons with disabilities experience persistent discrimination that denies them their

5 Somalia and South Sudan are the most recent members to do so in 2015.

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right to an education. The CRPD articulates the concept of inclusive education for the first time in

international law. Fewer, but still the majority of countries, have ratified the CRPD’s Optional Protocol,

which gives the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities the right to receive complaints and

investigate serious violations of the Convention, essentially holding ratifying countries accountable for

following through with guaranteeing the rights outlined in the CRPD (CRPD 2006; IDA 2020; United

Nations Treaty Collection 2020c).

The United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted in 2015, includes SDG 4.5,

which commits countries to ensure equal access to all levels of educational and vocational training for

persons with disabilities. The 2030 Agenda sets out specific intergovernmental global goals for countries

to, build and upgrade educational facilities to be disability sensitive and in compliance with the CRPD

(Sustainable Development Goals Knowledge Platform n.d.; IDA 2020). All United Nations Member

States have adopted the 2030 Agenda. These high-profile declarations signal growing interest in inclusive

education in Sub-Saharan Africa and around the world (UNESCO 2018a).

National policies and strategies on inclusive education) are in various stages in many countries. It should

be noted that often the term “special needs education” is still used6, although that term has historically

also been used for segregated education. These policies and strategies include specific sections on

education as part of disability legislation, and some include sections on disability within education

legislation. These acts vary in specificity by country, and many call for the availability of special schools

for children whose disabilities are too severe for or cannot be accommodated by ordinary schools (see

the Inclusive Versus Segregated Versus Integrated Education section for a discussion on separate

schools). What qualifies a learner for admission to a special school and who decides on those

qualifications differs by country. A review of national policies and strategies completed for this literature

review finds that many of these policies and strategies specifically call for:

• Physically accessible educational facilities (e.g., Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Nigeria, South Africa, and

Uganda)

• Communication accommodations such as Braille, sign language, and audio libraries (e.g., Ghana,

Kenya, Nigeria, and Senegal)

• Teacher training on special needs education (e.g., Madagascar, Nigeria, Rwanda, Tanzania, and

Uganda)

• Adapting the curriculum to meet the needs of learners with disabilities (e.g., Kenya, Senegal, and

Uganda)

• Financial assistance or tuition reduction for learners with disabilities (e.g., Malawi and Senegal)

Not all countries mandate inclusive education as it is outlined in legislation; some laws simply state that

the government will “encourage” such actions. Certain countries have documented their prioritization

of inclusive education in their constitutions. Many Sub-Saharan African countries have constitutional

provisions that protect persons with disabilities from discrimination, such as South Africa, Malawi,

Zimbabwe, Eritrea, Kenya, Ghana, Namibia and Gambia, and some also have provisions that ensure the

right to education for children with disabilities, like South Africa, Kenya and Burundi (ACPF 2014).

Government prioritization of inclusive education is essential for children with disabilities to have access

to education. It should be noted, however, that while essential, establishment of education policies alone

6 Examples of its use were found in the policies in Senegal, South Africa, and Uganda.

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is not sufficient to guarantee inclusion. There frequently is a gap between political intent and the actual

provision of inclusive education in schools in all 21 eastern and southern African countries included in a

study on the fulfilment of the right to education of children with disabilities (EDT and UNICEF 2016).7

For example, a case study of the Comoros established that despite political intent, enrollment in school

was particularly challenging for children with disabilities due to barriers to parents bringing their child to

school and parents being unwilling to admit their child has a disability as a result of cultural attitudes.

Another report determined that policy in low- and middle-income countries was often not clearly stated

or understood. The same report found that some schools were not even aware of their country’s

inclusive education policies and received no training on how to implement them (Graham 2014). Many

countries with government support of inclusive education have seen progress, but further advancement

requires appropriate funding, awareness, and specific strategies for achieving educational provisions for

learners with disabilities, such as teacher training (EDT and UNICEF 2016).

7 Angola, Botswana, Burundi, the Comoros, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique,

Namibia, Rwanda, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Swaziland, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia, and

Zimbabwe.

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Examples of National Inclusive Education Policy

Kenya – Persons with Disabilities Act

18. Education

(1) No person or learning institution shall deny admission to a person with a disability to any course of study by reason only of such disability, if the person has the ability to acquire substantial learning in that course.

(2) Learning institutions shall take into account the special needs of persons with disabilities with respect to