Research in Higher Education Journal Volume 37

Experiences of African, Page 1

Experiences of African American Superintendents in Texas

Milton R. Fields, III, Ed.D.

Judson ISD

Don Jones, Ed.D.

Texas A&M University – Kingsville

Kathryn Korelich, Ed.D.

Texas A&M University – Kingsville

ABSTRACT

The topic of African American superintendents has been largely neglected in society.

Research studies revealed that an underrepresentation of African American superintendents

exists. This ethnic disparity is a valid concern. This study was based on the premise that

additional research studies are needed to understand the climate, culture and leadership

experiences of African American superintendents in Texas. Although African American men and

women are pursuing careers in the superintendency, there is still a shortage of available research

data that explores their experiences. This basic interpretive qualitative research study explored

the overall experiences and perceptions of six African American superintendents in Texas. In-

depth, semi-structured interviews provided rich, thick descriptions, feelings and an interpretive

perspective of this purposive and snowball sampling. The researcher served as the instrument to

data collection. The method of triangulation was employed to ensure trustworthiness, credibility

and member checking where the participants confirmed that the data were interpreted correctly

by the researcher to improve the quality of the research. This study contributed new knowledge

from an African American perspective. Social Cognitive Theory was the theoretical framework

for this qualitative study (Bandura, 1986; Bussey & Bandura, 1999). The results of this

investigation reflected the personal experiences, views and perceptions of six African-American

superintendents as they obtained their desired positions. The findings revealed there were some

barriers and challenges facing aspiring African American superintendents: (a) lack of

networking, (b) lack of mentors, (c) lack of school district pool of potential African American

candidates and (d) lack of professional educational and equity associations. Recommendations

that resulted from this investigation included that as aspiring African American superintendents,

they must learn to develop professional and personal network of contacts. As aspiring African

American superintendents seek superintendent positions, they need to research the

demographics, culture and needs of the district, stakeholders and board members. Finally,

professional educational associations need to be inclusive and expand their membership pool to

include underrepresented African American educators.

Keywords: Superintendent, African American, Leadership

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journals. Please see the AABRI Copyright Policy at http://www.aabri.com/copyright.html

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INTRODUCTION

This qualitative study investigates six African American superintendents and obtains an

improved comprehension of the perceptions and experiences of African American

superintendents. Chapter I contains an overview of research as a foundation for this study. It

describes the overview of the investigation, the problem statement, the purpose of the study, the

research questions that guided this study, the theoretical framework, significance, assumptions

and limitations of the investigation.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The goal of this investigation was to explore and interpret (Dillard, 1995) the overall

experiences, perceptions and leadership experiences and practices of six African American superintendents in the state of Texas school districts.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1.How do African American superintendents in Texas describe their overall experiences

regarding climate, culture and leadership?

2.How do African American superintendents in Texas successfully navigate the path to

the superintendency?

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The review of literature examines the vital concepts, characteristics and necessary

dimensions of African American superintendents as leaders, and the overall phenomena in this

naturalistic inquiry qualitative study as a means of successful reform. This research study was

timely and of current importance in understanding the climate, culture and leadership perceptions

of six African American superintendents in order to gain a better understanding of the issues that

contributed to and or hampered their ascent to the superintendency, in an attempt to expand the

number of African American superintendents in Texas.

Historical Perspective

Superintendents as a teacher-scholar was dominant from 1865 to 1910 (Spring, as cited in

Smothers, 2012). They functioned as lead educators who were subordinate to board members but

were considered superior to principals, teachers and students (Kowalski, 2006). The

superintendent as a business manager emerged after 1910. Some school boards placed more

emphasis on a superintendent’s managerial skill than they did on his or her teaching skills. Prior

to this time, there were neither courses nor academic degrees offered in educational

administration (Cubberly, 1924).

Minority Representation

The United States of America has faced a significant shift in demographics and

population over the past 20 years. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2010), the numbers and

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diversity in the U.S. population will continue to grow, especially among minority students. The

racial composition of superintendents, teachers and student populations appears to be facing the

same changes but at a much slower increase (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2005).

The President of the Association of California School Administrators (2008) advocated that “it is

important to address the needs of African American education leaders and students because we

want all members of our society to achieve” (para. 8). A disparity in the number of

superintendents in districts where the majority of the population consists of minority African

American and Hispanic students creates a serious setback in the success of these students

(Campbell, 2015). Domenech, Executive Director of the School Superintendents Association,

stated, “we are nowhere near representing the population that is in our schools” (as cited in

Campbell, 2015, para 4). He further stated that “these students need role models. When they see

a brown or black face walk into their classroom, especially as the superintendent, they think and

say ‘wow’ that could be me” (Domenech, as cited in Campbell, 2015, para. 4). According to

Carpenter and Diem (2014), as of today, African American superintendents continue to struggle

for employment in districts. Educational theorists have stated that not unlike the principal, the

superintendent’s impact on learning is facilitated through the establishment of climate and

culture and the direct impact of the district/school. Therefore, having superintendent populations

reflective of the population of the district is the key to learning and student achievement. As

noted by Bandura (1986), equitable representation ensures students will identify and model

themselves after other successful educators, mentors and superintendents.

Significant Research Studies

Research inquires have been conducted concerning various aspects of the school

superintendent over the previous years. The American School Superintendent: 2010 Decennial

Study (Kowalski et al., 2011) is an expansion with inquires that have been organized every 10

years and was developed in 1923. However, there were matters that were the main points of

specific time epochs such as the 1933 investigation that included the role that public schools

would have in changing economic and social expansion after the Great Depression. The 1952

investigation concentrated on the difference between urban and rural superintendents. The 1960

investigation concentrated on superintendent readiness, and the 1971 investigation included

around 100 questions about attributes of the position, the individuals in the position and the

school districts employing them. The NABSE (2011) mentioned that there are around 13,893

school districts in the United States. Nevertheless, only 361 or 2.5% are African American male

and female superintendents. Ethnicity of the superintendency appears not to be a thing similar to

that of the population of students and teachers those superintendents serve and supervise (Volp,

2001).

Leadership Practices

As leaders of change, school leaders must therefore engage strategies favorable to

comprehensive practices among the elements such as shared vision, collaboration and effective

support, to play a central role (Salisbury & McGregor, 2002). It is imperative that school leaders

participate in a balancing act where issues of improving achievement, equity and social justice

are on the front lines of their agenda (Devecchi & Nevin, 2010). However, school leaders

regardless of ethnicity are evaluated by what they do. According to Boyatzies and McKee

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(2005), successful African American school leaders of change are “resonant leaders” who inspire

their stakeholders to recognize a problem and find solutions to solve it. When school leaders are

able to innovate, they are able to achieve transformative changes (Hallinger & Heck, 1998).

Heifetz (1994) stated that the most important benefit of a leader is the capacity to achieve an

activity where conflicts due to competing perspectives are addressed. Nevertheless, school

leaders must “engage people in facing a challenge, adjusting their values, changing their

perspectives, and developing new habits” (Heifetz & Laurie, 1997, p. 134).

Successful Leadership

According to Vargo (2005), the terms “visionary,” “integrity,” “academic excellence,”

“bridge builder,” and “understanding of different cultures” (p. 2) are some of the major attributes

that are necessary to becoming a successful and effective superintendent. According to Kirst

(1993), a successful superintendent has an intellectual image of what exceptional instruction is

and is aware of how to accomplish schedules that will enhance teaching and learning. The

majority of the studies on the responsibilities of the superintendent furnish unclear suggestions of

successful leadership attributes. Therefore, leadership styles are not linked to district or student

achievements. However, a successful educational leader can occur in all ethnicities, dimensions,

age groups and mentalities. Differences are discovered when one looks at two particular physical

attributes of educational leaders: gender and race. The Texas Education Agency (2015) stated

that student populations across the state are 51.8% Hispanic, 29.4% Anglo, 12.7% African

American and 3.7% Asian. Texas has 1,025 school districts, of which 27 are African American

superintendents and 7 are female African American.

Current Trends

Currently, the issues of African American men in school leadership may seem somewhat

outdated. These concerns are placed in the far parts of our minds because we are now dealing

with other important things such as social issues, at-risk students and reduced resources. a

successful superintendent is able to have a political acuity that includes being able to handle and

balance contradictory interests, guiding school boards and community stakeholders, clear

dialoguing, sharing credit with others, accountability and knowing how to negotiate among

different community stakeholders and ethnicities. Superintendents should be able to handle

complicated organizations, insist on high standards, maintain financial integrity and recognize

the power of expertise and capability of staff and position them in employment where they will

be more effective and successful.

Role of the Superintendent

Superintendents serve as board CEOs on educational affairs and as district educational

leaders. They are accountable for assuring the school board is notified concerning district

business, activities and district requirements. They create administrative plans required to

supervise district day-to-day business properly and in agreement with board policy. These

procedures must be in compliance with all laws, rules and regulations that pertain to the district

(Reeves, 2009).

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Six superintendent standards and excellence are required to ensure student success:

1. Setting a wide-shared vision for learning; 2. Developing a school culture and instructional program conducive to student learning and

staff professional growth;

3. Ensuring effective management of the organization, operation, and resources for a safe, efficient, and effective learning environment.

4. Collaborating with faculty and community members, responding to diverse community interests and needs, and mobilizing community resources;

5. Acting with integrity, fairness, and in an ethical manner; 6. Understanding, responding to, and influencing the political, social, legal, and cultural

contexts. (Council of Chief Staff School Officers, 2008, p. 19)

Leadership, Learning, and Gender Development

In an effort to develop successful predicators to leadership, Evers and Lakomski (1991)

divided organizational leadership into three sections: (a) the behavioral scientific approach, (b)

the scientific management and (c) the human relations approach. The origin of this system was

first addressed as early as 1918 and as late as 1945. They have evolved into other major theories.

Kowalski’s (2006) book, The School Superintendent: Theory, Practice and Cases, provides

answers to questions about the superintendency by providing personal experiences, theory and

practical knowledge to encourage others.

Shakeshaft (as cited in Bandura, 1986) claimed that in general, men and women’s approaches or

attitudes toward the position of school administrator were different. “As a group, women tend to

have a different administrative style than men do and that effectiveness for a female may depend

on this altered approach” (Shakeshaft, as cited in Bandura, 1986, p. 190).

Bandura (1986) maintained that new behaviors were learned. The type of learning was

one of the essential procedures by which cognitive competencies were initiated and diversified.

“Sex-typing is promoted through a vast system of socialization practices beginning at birth, with

infants clothed in pink or blue apparel depending on their sex” (Bandura, 1989, p. 33). Eagly’s

(1987) social role theory confirmed Bandura’s (1986) theory and claimed that the expectations

and the roles that society generally assigned to men were definitely different than those assigned

to women. Merriam and Brockett (1997) maintained that the lack of access and training affected

women’s learning in adulthood. This is important because the lack of training placed women in a

disadvantaged position when seeking promotion. However, the literature is not consistent.

Merriam and Brockett (1997) revealed that African American female superintendents were more

qualified and better trained than their male counterparts. Additional research studies according to

Shakeshaft (1989) attributed the underrepresentation of women superintendents to societal norms

and beliefs regarding leadership were not necessarily a result of their inexperience or lack of

training. These studies revealed that women are experienced and well trained. Yet, a disparity

still exists in the workforce; there were only seven African American women superintendents in

Texas out of the 1,025 districts.

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RESEARCH DESIGN AND APPROACH

Research Design

This investigation was a naturalistic inquiry with prominence on crucial subjects

(Creswell, 2003). According to Baxter and Jack (2008), the methodology of a qualitative study

implements instruments for researchers to investigate a convoluted phenomenon within its

setting. Therefore, when this method is done accurately, it transforms into a vital process.

According to Bloomberg and Volpe (2008), a qualitative study has its concentration of

significance, discoveries and explanation; its theories are centered with the removal and

explanation of significant knowledge. Thus, researchers bring their attention in the interests,

events or single motives (Creswell, 2005).

A qualitative investigation is a parasol theory topping several designs of investigations

that will allow the researcher to comprehend the significance of a social phenomenon with brief

disruptions of the normal surroundings (Merriam, 1998). In naturalistic inquiry, the interviews

will think about purposeful discussions (Dexter, 1970; Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen,

1993; Terkel, 1972). The motive was to introduce a candid dialogue between the researcher and

the participants. Therefore, this investigation brings specific attention to the perceptions of six

African American superintendents as they communicate problems of climate, culture and

leadership within their districts.

A methodology for setting this investigation involved two steps: (a) categorizing and

revising the information into manageable folders and (b) composing a narrative that relates a

story (Patton, 2002). As applied to the qualitative investigation (Efeoglu, Ilerten, & Basal, 2018)

the information gathered for this consisted of six interviews, observations, field notes and

documents. Every piece of data gathered provided rich details that impacted and nevertheless

formed each participant’s investigation.

Setting, Population/Participants

The criterion-based sampling procedures were utilized to determine the district site for

this investigation. The process of participant selection was involved soliciting six African

American superintendents using the purposive and snowballing sampling methods in different

districts in the state of Texas. The setting for interviews, field notes, observations and documents

were the superintendents’ respective district offices.

Data Collection, Coding, and Analysis

The six African American superintendents served as data sources for this qualitative

study. Data was generated by the six superintendents through interviews, observation, field notes

and documents. In a naturalistic inquiry, interviews assist the researcher to understand and seek

circumstances of the interpersonal, social and ethnic features of the environment (Fetterman,

1989). The researcher selects questions that allow the participants to reflect on their experiences

and explain to the researcher what is going on in the participants’ worlds (Merriam, 1998). The

superintendents who were interviewed for this study focused on the questions drawn by the

researcher (Appendix B). Field notes were utilized to confirm and nullify the interview

information method. After deciding the patterns and themes that emerge from the 10 interview

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questions, the researcher reviewed and contemplated each concept and sought to determine

whether the researcher had seen the same themes in the documents. The last stage of the data

collection is the gathering and evaluating of the district records. The requested documents were

included the mission and vision statements, goal statements, district-wide assessment plans,

district enrollment, demographics and information from the district stakeholders. Responses from

participants were transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were coded for key words and phrases. The

information was read multiple times to ensure understanding. The information and location of

each interview was recorded. All of the reactions by the researcher were documented in the

researcher’s field notes. All transcripts were coded by emerging themes. Data analysis was

utilized to prepare and categorize the information obtained. However, the interview information

was decreased into themes through a process of coding, condensing, synthesizing and

interpreting. All interviews were tape recorded with a digital voice recorder. Every participant

voice recording was downloaded onto a compact disc, checked for clarity and transcribed. The

framework for this investigation was the focal point for managing the information. The

information was examined for the conclusion of this investigation that filled the gap and

contributed to the body of knowledge by providing the climate, culture and leadership

experiences, perception and feelings of six successful African American superintendents in

Texas. Thus, data analysis began with the first interview and continued to the sixth interview,

until the research project was completed. Field notes were maintained by the researcher and read

and reviewed on a consistent basis throughout the entirety of the project. After each one-hour

interview, the taped responses were transcribed verbatim in a Microsoft Word and Excel

documents. This study allowed a template inquiry strategy (Marshall & Rossman, 2006),

meaning that a particular group of pre-determined codes was used to theme the information. The

six participants provided numerous options such as (a) open-coding, (b) axial coding and (c)

selective coding. Columns were generated using attributes as categories to assist the information.

The common themes and patterns were derived from the data obtained from the interviews, field

notes, observations and documents, while being positioned in the relevant qualitative categories.

The categories and themes were generated to specifically examine the large amounts of data by a

series of editing and crosschecks (Huberman & Miles, 1994). To increase the trustworthiness of

this investigation, three strategies were utilized: (a) triangulation (Rolson, 2018; Seale, 1999; &

Tracy, 2010) (b) member checking and (c) rich thick description. However, it entails the use of

collaborating conformation from a variety of sources to shed light on a theme of perspective

(Creswell, 2007).

RESULTS

Introduction

This basic interpretive qualitative research study explored the overall experiences and

perceptions of six African American superintendents in Texas. In-depth, semi-structured

interviews provided rich, thick descriptions, feelings and an interpretive perspective of this

purposive and snowball sampling.

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Descriptive Data

Naturalistic qualitative data collection methods were utilized in this study to assess the

six participants’ perceptions and experiences as African American superintendents and how this

affected their ascension to the position of superintendent in the state of Texas. This qualitative

research was inherently multidimensional; therefore, multiple forms of data were collected

throughout this study (Trochim, 2006). The data also included interviews, observations, field

notes and documents collected from the participants beginning in 2015 and through to 2016.

Obtaining a variety of data allowed a triangulation approach, permitting the researcher to

recognize themes consistent with the study.

Conceptual Framework

This investigation examined their perceptions and leadership experiences, along with

their vision toward equity concerning positions within the state and their description on how they

navigated to, and remained in, the superintendency across the state. The significance of these

African American superintendents’ navigation to and continuation in their position is to

contribute to the body of knowledge concerning their underrepresentation in the superintendent

position within Texas and the United States (Hodgkinson & Montenegro, 1999; Tillman, 2009).

Participants

The study consisted of six participants: two females and four male African American

superintendents. All six participants were Texas certified at the doctorate degree level. The

superintendents had varying years of experience, in and out of the state of Texas. The

participants were given pseudonyms to disguise their identity. Participants were introduced

individually as participants A, B, C, D, E, and F. There were 28 African American

superintendents in Texas during the time of this study.

Superintendent A

Superintendent A appeared most confident causing him to stand out from the other

superintendents interviewed. Superintendent A is an African American male. He has served as a

superintendent since June 2009. He became a superintendent at the age of 37. He received his

undergraduate degree in 1994, his master’s degree in 1996 and his doctoral degree in 1998. He

has served in an education capacity as an elementary teacher, assistant principal, principal,

director, and assistant superintendent of curriculum. The school district went from Low

Performing to Recognized status under his superintendency. The district has made substantial

progress in student achievement under his leadership. Dr. A is in an urban school district in

South Texas with a student enrollment of 25,000, more than 10,000; 99.4% of the students were

Hispanic, 0.1% were African American and 0.4% were Caucasian. This was Superintendent A’s

seventh year as a superintendent.

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Superintendent B

Superintendent B was very polite, courteous and professional with strong confidence. Dr.

B began her career as a middle school 8th grade English language arts classroom teacher in

1999. After three years, she became an assistant principal and served for two years, next she

became a principal at an intermediate level campus, and then moved into the principalship in the

same middle school she served as a classroom teacher and assistant principal. Eventually, she

was approached with the possibility of applying for superintendent and was offered the position.

She served as a superintendent in the small district for five years before becoming superintendent

in her present district where she has served for the last three years. Dr. B was a female

superintendent of an urban school district in East Texas with a student enrollment of 8,322, less

than 10,000; 29.0% of the students were African American, 39.3% were Hispanic and 27.7%

were Caucasian. This was Superintendent B’s fifth year as a superintendent.

Superintendent C

Superintendent C was amendable, with a quick wit and a sharp sense of purpose. Dr. C

began his educational leadership experience as the principal of a middle school for four years

and then served three years as the principal of a high school. He served as a superintendent for

three years, three years as superintendent in another district, one year as a deputy superintendent

and presently completing eight years as a superintendent. Dr. C was a male superintendent of an

urban school district in South Central Texas with a student population of 23, 771, more than

20,000; 55% of the students were Hispanic, 26.8% were African American, 16.4% were

Caucasian,